Methods for Increased Discernment of Deception

Methods for Increased Discernment of Deception Getting to the Truth A Review of Information Gathering for the Purpose of Establishing the  Veracity of Certain Events with Recommendations for Application In consideration of the not simply punishing the guilty but in addition, for the purpose of the prevention of further crime, law enforcement officials have a significant need for information from witnesses and suspects. This information must, above all, be accurate and it must be gained by a legal means in a means that can be implemented often without extensive personnel or expense in a timely manner. Interestingly enough, despite the general regard of being regarded as â€Å"experts† and â€Å"professionals† in the information gathering business and despite varying degrees of training or experience, numerous studies have demonstrated than nearly all police officers perform at nearly the same levels as untrained civilians as they both tend to hover only slightly above that of a pure chance of 50/50. Though these studies produce somewhat varying rates, it is important to not that there is little consistent validity that certain populations are demonstrably better at dete cting deception than untrained or chance selections (Vrij 2004, p. 159; Vrij, et al. 2004, p. 283; Kassin Gudjonsson 2004, p. 37; Mann, et al. 2004, p. 137). In gathering information, the label of â€Å"interrogation† is attached to processes if the person being questioned is viewed as a primary suspect while the more benign term of â€Å"interview† attaches to those viewed as simply a witness, potential witness or other information gathering purpose. In light of this, one might rightly assume that the chief difference in this labeling of process is the presumptions of the interviewer or interrogator. In the process of interrogation, there is generally an assumption of guilt or at least culpable knowledge for which it is quite possible for induced interviewer bias to play a significant role in the outcome (Wright Allison 2004, p. 138; Gudjonsson 1992, p. 14). This bias is evident through the reply of one police officer in regards to this issue that, â€Å"†¦ we don’t interrogate innocent people† (Kassin Gudjonsson 2004, p. 36). Though it could be called an off-the-cuff remark, this is fairly typical of t he extent of bias that would likely result in a false-positive type error stemming from the subsequent behaviors such as attempts at â€Å"forcing† the subject to â€Å"talk† by not necessarily physical means (Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 57-58). Why People Lie To answer such a question, we might just as well ask, â€Å"Why do people tell the truth†? While these are simply two sides of the same coin, the question brings us no closer to the answer except that there are a potential myriad reasons yet by viewing it in this manner, some insight is possible. For example, in teaching values to groups to young people, one method to force the consideration of ethics is to ask the question, â€Å"Why one should not steal?† This purposefully leading question generally gets responses that either indicates an element of fundamental morality such as, â€Å"Because it is wrong†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or, alternatively, some variant of a fear of getting caught and the ensuing punishment. Similar to this, in consideration of the question of â€Å"why people lie†, the same tenets likely apply, that is they do so to escape punishment or other consequences or perhaps they do so based on the idea similar to the proposition of â€Å"the lesser of t wo evils† as might be the case when one tells an altruistic lie to protect another or to save a relationship (Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 10-11). In studies on lying, aside from the fact that it occurs more than one might think, there seem to be, in the minds of those who tell a lie, different types or degrees of lying depending on the stakes, the outcome and the person(s) deceived (Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 10-11). For example, if a â€Å"good thing† such as a job comes from a lie, it is more acceptable than a theft that occurs by deception. While this is likely how many people think, it is nonetheless a very slippery slope and the â€Å"good† done to one and the â€Å"harm† to another is quite debatable, depending on if one is the victim or the perpetrator. On method of gaining insight into the decision to tell a lie that assumes rationality, that is a conscious decision that a lie is in their calculated best interest, is to utilize the combined approach of motivation theory with the same type of payout ratio analysis used in decision risk modeling. With regards to motivation, one applicable model is that of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory in which the willingness of a person to perform some action is mediated by the interaction three variables (Dreher Dougherty 2002, pp. 34 – 36): Valence – The degree to which the outcome is desired. Instrumentality – The extent to which successful performance would result in the desired outcome. Expectancy – The likelihood of being able to perform a given task. In evaluating business decisions, companies will often construct a formal payout analysis in which the likelihood of positive outcome is weighed against the payout of success and the payout of failure. For example, the company that has a 50% chance of striking gold in a certain mine whose value is $10M but costs $1M to discover, regardless of success should rationally pursue this option which has a projected payoff of $4M (.5 x $10M less $1M expense). While this process of decision-making is easily illustrated utilizing financial examples, the fact that a decision has value to an individual is appropriate. Thus, when a person chooses to lie, they have consciously or not, evaluated their options and, from their perspective made a choice that lie outweighs the payoff of truth against the two possible â€Å"costs† of lying, that of the lie not being believed and that of being caught not telling the truth (Gonjonsson 1992, p. 21). Thus, by seeking to understand â€Å"why† a nd â€Å"how†, one can effectively understand â€Å"who† which aids the investigator to get inside the head of the person being questioned (Douglas Olshaker 1999, p. 17). The Problems of Confessions As indicated previously, the situational context of the interrogation process combined with the fact that police officers most likely have some degree of training in conjunction with the experience of dealing with deception extensively in their daily work yield the predictable result of â€Å"disbelieving people who are innocent with a great deal of confidence† (Kassin Gudjonsson 2004, p. 33). The well-documented presence of interviewer bias creates this situation in which only statements that support the interviewers already held beliefs (Wright Allison 2004, p. 139). This process, in an estimated 30% of the roughly 60% of cases that in which someone confesses, leads to an eventual confession of â€Å"something† culpable (Loftus 2004, p. I; Gudjonsson 1992, p. 50; Pearse, et al. 1998, pp. 1 – 2). Like the variance in the studies citing the ability to detect a lie, there are variance indications of the extent to which false confessions are given with the true n umber difficult to measure (Memom, et al. 2003, p. 76). Despite the problems in getting a true assessment of the problem, there is agreement that certain types of people are much more likely to confess than other groups. For example, youth or those who suffer from some mental disorder or diminished capacity are â€Å"prone†¦ to provide information which is unrelable, misleading or self-incriminating† (Pearse, et al. 1998, p. 2). In data collected on real-life police interviews with the accompanying real-life consequences, research revealed four generally applicable predictors of the likelihood of a confession (Pearse, et al. 1998, pp. 9 – 13): Age – 60% of confessors in this inquiry were under 25 while 60% of deniers were over 25. Drug Use within the last 24 hours was just over 3x as likely to confess. The presence of counsel reduced the rate of confessions by  ¼ the rate as when no counsel was present. Prison or previous documented criminal experience decreased the odds of a confession by  ½ as naà ¯ve subjects. With this information, it is possible to implement practices and procedures by which the pursuit of truth by managing situations in which false confessions due the subjects succumbing to perceived pressure to come up with something that will be â€Å"rewarded† is possible. These practices should likely include (Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 82 85): Using more information gathering-type approaches rather than â€Å"tricky techniques† designed to elicit a confession. Record all interviews and interrogations. Include legal counsel that do more than simply point out administrative issues but act in the interest of the client. Identify and require an â€Å"audit† of particularly at-risk persons. Require additional evidence to corroborate a confession. Discernment Techniques: Raising the Odds of Detection Perhaps most striking about the detection of deception is that there is no standard â€Å"Pinnochio’s nose† or nonverbal behavior that exists to signal an intent to deceive (Vrij 2004, p. 160; Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 11 – 12). This fallacy is one in which people superimpose how they might feel with how they think another should feel and, with this in mind, other indicators of deception will be examined Most people are somewhat familiar with the typical lie detector which utilizes subtle changes in autonomic measures such as galvanic skin responses, heart rate, blood pressure and respiration as correlates of an emotional response to a specific stimulus indicated the subject is concealing knowledge. Under controlled conditions, with a trained operator and a voluntary subject, accuracy rates as high as 95% have been claimed, this apparatus in no longer acceptable in court a a sole source for conviction (Gilbert 2004, pp. 138 – 140; Memom, et al. 2003, pp. 21 – 25; Bennett Hess 2001, pp. 160 – 161). The use of polygraphs as well as electroencephalograms (EEG) to record the autonomic responses to questioning have made to the detection of deception, specifically the attempt to hide specific knowledge, much more difficult. As the brain is very much an organ characterized by the transmission of electrical impulses, its activity is correlated to the conscious and unconscious information it processes. One very specific component of the brainwave, upon stimulation by a question or picture, evokes an excitation in brain wave patterns to the degree that a novel meaningful stimulus can be discerned by the researcher, regardless of what the subject claims. This component, dubbed the â€Å"P300† as it is positive in direction and it occurs 300 milliseconds after stimulation, can be defeated through specific means but for the usual criminal type that does not read journals of physiopsychology, it is a very reliable detector of cognitive effort to deceive (Rosenfeld, et al. 2004, pp. 2 05 – 206). This insight is somewhat complimentary to a less equipment-intensive method in which the interviewer pays close attention to the level of cognitive effort the subject is using. This is based on the reasonable assumption that a liar, in keeping their story straight, must work harder to construct a believable falsehood (Kassin Gudjonsson 2004, p. 39; Bennett Hess 2001, p. 160). In a truthful recollection, it is possible that details may be remembered at one point and omitted in another but the story retains the same essence. This is especially observable when the subject is questioned in a way that takes the elements out of sequential order; the difficulty in getting the details consistent takes considerable effort and is not always successful. This method of deception detection is dubbed â€Å"implicit† as one is considering the element of cognitive effort required to â€Å"keep the story straight† rather than simply if they are lying or not in order to determine the v eracity of the statement(s) made (Vrij 2004, p. 172). Complimentary to this and working in the investigator’s favor is that the subject in most likely not aware of what the police know and is thus at a significant disadvantage with regards to knowing how much information to disclose and how much to withhold (Vrij 2004, p. 170). Similarly, the focal point of the investigation should be upon what the subjects says and, to the degree possible, what the subject does not say through apparent efforts to conceal knowledge. In conclusion, as a result of both seeking to understand the â€Å"how† and â€Å"why†, a law enforcement official can better determine the ultimate culpability for a crime. In consideration of this information the following are presented as suggested methods for increased discernment of deception: Keep an open mind – As indicated, the common view that subjects are lying only â€Å"when their lips are moving† is strong evidence of interrogator bias and is likely to find exactly what the interrogator is looking for†¦ regardless of the truth. You are not interrogating Pinocchio – A belief that liars fidget may or may not hold. The subject may be nervous as this could be their first questioning. They may have been drinking†¦ ad infinitem. Do not interrupt, do not release information unless necessary – The fact that they do not know what you know is a very good thing. This information asymmetry works to both gather more information and better evaluate it. Do not look at the person’s face Facial clues are unreliable, person to person, and a layer of misleading data upon the real focus, the content of the interview. Though nonverbal clues may be present, research indicates that content issues such as omissions or inconsistencies are most likely where clues reside. Consider the amount of effort the subject is using – By using the implicit method of deception detection, more reliable, valid assessments are possible than simply trying to determine if the subject is lying. Record the interview – This is recommended not just for later review and protection of all involved but such as step allows the interview to focus on the content. Works Consulted Bennett, W.W., and Hess, K.M. (2001). Criminal Investigation, 6th edition. Stamford, Connecticut: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Douglas, J. and Olshaker, M. (1999). The Anatomy of Motive. New York, New York: Pocket Books. Dreher, G.F., and Dougherty, T.W. (2002). Human Resource Strategy: A Behavioral Perspective for the General Manager. Boston, Massachusetts: McGraw–Hill Irwin. Gilbert, J.N. (2004). Criminal Investigation, 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice-Hall. Gudjonsson, G. (1992). The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions and Testimony. Chichester, UK: Wiley Sons. Kassin, S.M. and Gudjonsson, G.H. (2004). â€Å"The Psychology of Confessions: A Review of the Literature and Issues†. Psychological Science in the Public Interest (5)2, pp. 33 – 67. Loftus, E. (2004). â€Å"The Devil in Confessions†. Psychological Science in the Public Interest (5)2, pp. i – ii. Memon, A. Vrij, A. Bull, R. (2003). Psychology and Law, 2nd Edition. Chichester, UK: Wiley Sons. Pearse, J., Gudjonsson, G.H., Clare, I.C.H., and Rutter, S. (1998). â€Å"Police Interviewing and Psychological Vulnerabilities: Predicting the Likelihood of a Confession†. Journal of Community Applied Psycholog, 8, pp. 1 – 21. Rosenfeld, J.P., Soskins, M., Bosh, G., and Ryan, A. (2004). â€Å"Simple, effective countermeasures to P300-based tests of detection of concealed information†. Psychopysiology, 41, pp. 205 – 219. Vrij, A., Evans, H., Akehurst, L., and Mann, S. ( 2004). â€Å"Rapid Judgements in Assessing Verbal and Nonverbal Cues: Their Potential for Deception Researchers and Lie Detection†. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, pp. 283 – 296. Vrij, A. (2004). â€Å"Why Professionals Fail to Catch Liars and How they Can Improve†. Legal and Criminal Psychology, 9, pp. 159 – 181.

Early Adulthood Observation

Adrienne Lindsey PSYC 2314. 01 Early Adulthood Observation Observation Date: Wednesday, March 27, 2013 Time: 5:00-8:00PM Location: Adults Home OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Q was a 19 year old black male. He was in the Erickson’s intimacy vs. isolation stage. Areas of observation include physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development. Physical Development Q has reached maximum body growth and biological aging or senescence has begun. Biological ageing is â€Å"genetically influenced declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal in all members of our species† (Berk, 2010, p. 32). Q exercises daily but he admits that he doesn’t eat a healthy diet all the time. â€Å"Regular moderate to vigorous exercise predicts a healthier longer life† (Berk, 2010, p. 443). Also, â€Å"when too much saturated fat is consumed, some of it is converted to cholesterol, which accumulates as plaque on the arterial walls in atherosclerosis† (Berk, 2010, p. 441). Q was stressing about getting into college, helping his mother with bills, and finding a job.This is psychological development, â€Å"chronic stress resulting from economic hardships is linked to hypertension, which contributes to the high incidence of heart disease in low-income groups, especially African-Americans† (Berk, 2010, p. 450). Cognitive Development Q has not entered college yet but he knows that it is something he has to do in order to get a good paying job. Study shows that â€Å"about 20 percent of recent high school graduates who do not continue their education are unemployed† (Berk, 2010, p. 58). Asked Q what he wanting to do with his life he said he wants to go to art school and become a graphic designer. Realistic period is a vocational development when young adults start to narrow their options first by exploring and then by crystallizing their focus on a single occupation (Berk, 2010, p. 456). This also shows that he is an artistic pe rson a personality type that affects vocational choice (Berk, 2010, p. 456). Social/Emotional Development Q said that he was too young to settle with one woman.This is an example of Erickson’s theory intimacy vs. isolation, intimacy being the positive and failing to find it leading to loneliness and self-absorption (Berk, 2010, p. 468). Q was stress about getting into college because some of his close friends have already entered college. Due to â€Å"changing in society from one generation to another can effect life course, the social clock, age graded expectations for major life events can have a psychological strain when behind in timing of life events† (Berk, 2010, p. 71). Q has a close relationship with his brother, who is two years younger than him; he remembers having good times with him. This is also an example of Erickson’s theory intimacy vs. isolation showing that â€Å"intimacy can also be satisfied through other relationships† (Berk, 2010, p. 472). IMPORTANCE INFORMATION LEARNED In my observation, I realize that some low SES families do not lack the importance of education, but just don’t have the resource they need to achieve what needs to be done.Maybe this country needs to be more like Germany and give young adults the opportunity to get the skills they need to become successful adults. The day after my observation with Q, I took it upon myself to help him fill out an application for student aid. Hopefully this will give him the push he needs to go to college and fulfill his life goals/dreams. With him being the oldest of five children it will be something positive for his younger siblings. References Berk, L. E. (2010). Development through the lifespan, 5th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Lord of the Flies Critical Analysis

In the novel Lord of the Flies, by William Golding, Golding illustrates many different themes. One of the themes he demonstrates is being away from a civilized society causes a person to become barbaric. Throughout the novel the conflict is demonstrated between Jack and Ralph who represent savagery vs. civilization. The ways Golding demonstrates this theme is how the boys’ language changes throughout the story. Also the way their behavior changes, and how they lose their identities through out the novel. One-way William Golding demonstrates the theme is by the change of language. The story is based upon a group of British boys who are stranded on a deserted island. They are all brought up to be proper speaking young adults. Throughout the story the boys have reverted back to a nomadic way of speaking. They don’t speak in complete sentences and they don’t use proper English. Also the way that William Golding talks about the boys has changed throughout the novel. He calls them savages and demoniac figures. â€Å".. savage raised his hand.. † (pg. 148). â€Å"Demoniac figures with faces of white and red and green rushed out howling, so that the littluns fled screaming. † William Golding now classifies them as savages because of their behaviors. Another way that Golding illustrates the theme is by the actions the boys acquire. Jack and his group, the choir boys, enjoy hunting. So in the story they attempt to kill a sow. Once they do they re-enact the hunt. The y saw Robert, a young boy who is stranded on the island, as the pig. They acted as if they were hunting the pig by jabbing Robert with sticks. Jack and his group also beat the other boys up. Jack and his boys tie up Wilfred, another young boy who is stranded on the island, and beat him up. Also Simon, a boy who is a Christ-like figure in the novel, tries telling all of the other boys stranded on the island that there is no beast. The boys mistaken Simon as the beast and kill him. And Roger, a boy who is in Jack’s group, pushed a boulder down a hill and the boulder killed Piggy. Sharpen the stick at both ends† says Jack. He first said this when he wanted to kill the sow; he then says this again when he wants to kill Ralph. Jack and his boys set fire to the island trying to kill Ralph. Claire Rosenfield states, â€Å"the narrative follows the children’s gradual return to the amorality of childhood, a non-innocence which makes them small savages. † Rosenfield is saying that children throughout the narrative turn into savages an d become uncivilized. Compton’s by Britannica says, â€Å"The story portrays a group of school boys isolated on a coral island who gradually abandon all moral constraints and revert to savagery, including ritualistic murder. † Which means that the boys regress into savages and don’t follow morals. â€Å"Each time they re-enact the same event, however there behavior becomes more frenzied, more cruel, less like dramatization or imitation than identification. † A third way that the author portrays the theme of this novel is how the boys lose their identities. They use to all have their own identities then they formed groups. Sam and Eric, these twins, became samneric. All of the little boys became littluns, and all of the older boys became bigguns. Also how the boys paint their faces. They paint their faces red, white and green to in a way change who they are. When they put the paint on they act as if they’re in camouflage. Also when they have the paint on their faces they act as more barbaric. The boys throughout the story lose who they really are. They have no adult supervision or guidance to guide them in the humanitarian aspects. So they lose sight of whom they really are through out the course of time. Lastly, William Golding personifies the theme of this novel by needing rules and law to remain civilized. Each time the boys re-enact the same event it gets more cruel and evil. â€Å"†¦The story shows that laws and rules†¦are necessary to keep the darker side of human nature in line† says W. Meitcke. Meitcke is saying that you need to have laws and rules to keep people in line and civil. If you don’t have any guidelines people get out of hand and become savages who don’t follow moral behavior.

Analysis Of The Book Cristobal Colon - 1170 Words

Cristobal Colon who is formerly known as Christopher Columbus was another person that David Ponder encountered on his journey. Christopher Columbus gave David a very important decision for success. This decision no longer made David have an undecided heart because David knew that if he did, he would always fail in life. Thus, the fourth decision for success that was given to David was â€Å"I have a decided heat.† When a person like David started â€Å"to wait, to wonder, to doubt, to be indecisive, [they were disobeying] God† (Andrews). When David opted to have a decided heart, he chose to quit and defeat double mindedness. When people commit themselves to have a decided heart, they have the power to take hold of their own future. As David read†¦show more content†¦Sometimes in life people try to dehumanize and humiliate others. This causes the humiliated and dehumanized person to find it hard to forgive others. David found himself struggling with this concep t when he met Abraham Lincoln. Abraham Lincoln gave David excellent advice, which lead David to the sixth decision for success â€Å"I will greet this day with a forgiving spirit.† Through this decision David learned that he must forgive others with grace and mercy. Moreover, that he could not move on with his life unless he learned to forgive all things. Not only did David learn to forgive others in this decision for determining personal success, but he also learned to forgive his own self. When people forgives something, they are doing it for themselves and not for others. Thus, when David decided to forgive his own self and others, he overcame his feelings of animosity, resentment, and vengeance. In doing so, the reader could gradually see David becoming a better and more successful person. In this decision David also choose not to be a slave anymore because he has the power to speak what he believes. He no longer had to â€Å"live his life according to other people† (Andrews). David learned that he could not be successful unless he started to forgive. Before David’s long journey ended with people from the past, he met Angel Gabriel who gave him the final decision for success. Angel Gabriel allowed David to look into the future to see what heShow MoreRelated Columbus and the New World Discovery Essay4487 Words   |  18 Pagesheart of the republic. Reconfiguring the great explorer in images of technology and modernity, the Chicago Worlds Fair saluted the man then regarded, in the words of President Benjamin Harrison, as the pioneer of progress and enlightenment. In a book especially produced for the fair, the historian Meyer Kayserling summed up the prevailing assessment of Columbus: In the just appreciation of his great services to mankind, all political, religious and social differences have vanished. How things